Photography - Digital camera controls

Digital Camera Controls

• Mode dial: On most cameras this is a round dial on top of the camera. This is the shooting mode dial. On Canon cameras, the dial is on the left side when you hold the viewfinder to your eye and take pictures. On Nikon cameras, it’s on the right side. You use the dial to choose the desired shooting mode.
• Shutter button: You press this button to prefocus the camera and take a picture.
• ISO setting: You use this feature to change the ISO setting of the camera. The ISO determines how sensitive the sensor is to light. You use higher ISO settings to take pictures in low light conditions. A dial or a menu command is used to change the ISO setting.
• Aperture setting: The aperture determines how much light enters the camera. When you choose Aperture Priority as the shooting mode, you use a dial to change the aperture, and the camera automatically selects the shutter speed to properly expose the image.
• Shutter speed setting: The shutter speed setting comes into play when you shoot in Shutter Priority mode. After choosing Shutter Priority for the shooting mode, you use a dial to change the shutter speed, and the camera automatically selects the correct f/stop to properly expose the image.
• Exposure compensation setting: This is used to increase or decrease the exposure. You increase or decrease the exposure when the camera gets it wrong.
• Flash control: If your camera has a built-in flash unit, you push this button to pop the flash unit up and enable it. You can use flash to light the scene or add additional light known as fill flash.
• LCD panel: This panel shows you all the current settings. When you change a setting such as the shutter speed or ISO setting, the panel updates to show you the new settings. If your camera doesn’t have an LCD panel, these settings are visible in most camera viewfinders.

TV script format

It's important to remember that there is no hard and fast standardization. Each show has its own idiosyncrasies. There are some things, however, that remain consistent in all teleplays whether drama or sitcom. The goal here is to give you an idea of what those are.

If you want to write for television, you must do your homework. Learn about the show you wish to write a spec for. Study its style, find out the common script length, and most of all, read as many scripts as you can get your hands on. Dissect them, try to figure out if anything is wrong with them and, if you find something, figure out how to fix it. In other words, know the show inside and out, be enthusiastic about it, believe in it and be a fan.

Format and story structure are precise when it comes to episodic television. A 1/2 hour story runs about 22 minutes; an hour show, about 45 minutes with commercials dispersed for the remaining time. The breaks must be in the right spot for the advertisers to put up their wares. They also need to be compelling enough to bring your viewer back to the program.

Television is like a factory. It survives on an endless stream of product; sometimes so similar in nature that it's hard to tell the shows apart. With the increase of cable, the need has increased an awful lot in the last 15 years.

Network TV is no longer king. An increasing number of channels have gone into production with their own original programming. Examples are HBO, Showtime, TNT, Sci Fi, and USA. This is great because it has expanded the marketplace in which writers can circulate.

The most important thing to remember here is that drama is conflict. Without it - no drama. You've got to take your characters to hell before you give them a happy ending or it won't mean anything. Conflict comes from inside the characters and an external influence. There are three types: Man vs. Himself, Man vs. Man, Man vs. Nature.

One-Hour Drama

In addition to the above, start your scenes late and get out early. They must advance the plot and develop the character. End them on a dramatic highpoint and make sure the conflict is well developed. Most of all, show don't tell.

Types

There are a few different kinds.

1. The procedural, which consists of shows such as the Law and Order franchise and the CSI franchise,
2. Next are the shows that deal with lawyers and politics. These are shows like The West Wing, The Practice, etc.
3. Police dramas, such as, The District and NYPD Blue.
4. Hero-types which consist of shows like Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Angel, andSmallville.
5. Fantasy/Sci-Fi - examples here are Enterprise, Twilight Zone, Dead Zone, etc.
6. Cable - Shows such as Queer as Folk, The Sopranos, and Six Feet Under are written without the act breaks seen in commercial television.

Format

One-hour shows are formatted like features, except for the act breaks. You begin and end them as you would a sitcom, however there are no scene breaks. Each page equals about a minute of screen time and script lengths usually fall between 53-60 pages. There are some, however, such as West Wing, which can be as long as 66 pages. Again, you must know your show. The best advice is to read the teleplays and copy the format precisely,

The Cover Page should indicate the name of the show, episode title, and the writer's name.

The Title Page should contain show name, episode title, writer's name and contact information.

Typically, a one-hour drama consists of a teaser and 4 acts. There are some, like Enterprise, that have a teaser and 5 acts and still others that are only 4 acts, like Alias. Again, a good reason to study scripts for the show you wish to write for.

Acts are designated numerically, usually written out and centered at the top of the page. Placing "End Act One" or "End Act 1" creates act breaks. This is centered and double-spaced beneath the last piece of narrative or dialogue. FADE or CUT may be used to end a scene, but it isn't necessary. A simple scene slug line will do nicely instead. Begin each new act of a fresh page.

The act break is where the script reaches a strong dramatic moment. That's where the station typically inserts commercials. The big question here is whether or not the story moment is strong enough to break your audience back.

The time breakdown works like this:

Teaser:	2-4 pages
Act One:	14-15 pages
Act Two:	14-15 Pages
Act Three:	14-15 Pages
Act Four:	14-15 Pages
Tag:	1-2 Pages
Total:	59 to 66 pages

Structure

Be sure to follow the 3 Act Structure within your teleplay. In Act One, set up the goal for the character. Then your character runs into an obstacle. By the end of the act he should reach or fail to reach that immediate goal. Act One usually lasts about 10 minutes. In Act Two, you'll complicate the character's mission, then raise the stakes. Be sure to move your subplots forward as well and raise the stakes again. By this point, your character is at his lowest point. This act usually goes for about 40 minutes. By Act Three, your character, hopefully, will have reached a new level of determination. You will have made things even tougher for him, so he'll have to dig inside himself for more strength. Be sure to deal with your subplots and tie up loose ends. Finally, is the resolution or pay-off.

Depending on the series, there can be up to three storylines running concurrently. The A story is the main plot, while the B story is the major subplot. The C story is called a runner or minor subplot, usually character developing. It usually occurs three times within the hour.

Dialogue

When writing dialogue, there are a couple of things to consider:

1. The character ages, education, and background.
2. Any emotional changes. How do they speak when emotional or angry?
3. Don't use boring and/or unnecessary dialogue.
4. It must move the story forward.
5. Characters should NEVER explain their feelings. They should be acted out.
6. Be specific in your dialogue. Details are everything and they'll serve to enrich your characters.
7. Beware of long speeches. The thing about dialogue vs. action is that a page of action runs a lot faster than a page of dialogue. Time expands when you talk. Break up speeches with interjections from other characters or actions pertaining to the scene.
8. Don't let your characters talk to themselves. If it's absolutely critical, do it sparingly, and only if the scene turns out better with it than without it.
9. ALWAYS READ DIALOGUE OUT LOUD.

Situation Comedies

Someone once said that "dying is easy, comedy is hard." You really have to understand funny in order to write funny. If a joke is told badly, no matter how good the joke, it'll fall flat. The opposite can be true as well. If a bad joke is well told, it could be funny.

Format

There are two types of sitcoms: multiple camera format and single camera format. Multiple camera format is the traditional form, and it started with shows like "I Love Lucy," and continues with "Everybody Loves Raymond," Will and Grace," "Frasier," etc. Single camera shows are shot and formatted like films. Examples of these would include "Malcolm in the Middle," The Simpsons," Curb Your Enthusiasm," etc.

No matter what type of show, it's important to find several actual scripts for the spec you're writing so that you can get really familiar with the format.

Some shows have teasers and tags, some have two acts (multiple camera format) and some have three acts (some, but not all, single camera shows), and some have page counts that differ from industry averages. A good example of that is Sex and the City. This is a single camera show in three acts that includes a key scene in every script where Carrie sits at her computer and asks the question that frames all the stories in the episode. An analysis of past scripts would indicate this happens about 7-11 minutes into the episode, but not always. Know the rules before you break them.

Typical format for multiple camera sitcoms:

1. FADE IN: - All caps and underlined
2. SCENES - numbered using CAPS. Ample space above and below and underlined.
3. SLUGLINES - indicate location, time of day, and underlined.
4. Character List - should appear directly below the slug line and indicate which characters are needed for the scene. Also enclosed in parentheses.
5. ACTIONS/DESCRIPTIONS - listed in a capital letters
6. CHARACTER INTROs - Capitalized and underlined.
7. SOUND EFFECTS/SPEICAL EFFECTS/CAMERA INSTRUCTIONS - Capitalized and underlined.
8. CHARACTER NAMES/DIALOGUE - Capitalized and double spaced.
9. PERSONAL DIRECTION - appears within dialogue - on the same line - in all capitals and enclosed in parentheses.

The Cover Page should indicate the name of the show, episode title, and the writer's name.

The Title Page should contain show name, episode title, writer's name and contact information.

Begin most 1/2 hour scripts by writing the name of the show, centered and capped, 6 lines from the top of the page. Double space down from the name and center the episode title in quotation marks. 6 lines below that, center ACT ONE, then A below that, also centered. 8 lines below that, write FADE IN: @ the 1.4 inch mark from the margin. A list of which characters are needed appears at the beginning of each new scene. Every page should contain page numbers as well as the scene letters.

You can end each scene with a CUT TO:, DISSOLVE TO:, FADE TO:, etc., however this is seen less frequently today.

The second scene begins on a new page. 21 lines down, write B, centered. 6 lines below that, write the opening slug line. All the scenes are "numbered" with letters. The script is divided into acts and each new act begins on a new page.

Dialogue is double-spaced for legibility and stage direction is all in CAPS in order to distinguish them easily from the dialogue. There should be lots of white space for jotting down notes. Dialogue may also contain "personal direction" for the actors within it, rather than outside it; just like a stage play.

As for time breakdown, the following applies:

Teaser:	1-2 pages
Act One:	17-20 pages
Act Two:	17-20 pages
Tag:	1-3 pages
Total:	40-48 pages in length

Typical format for single camera sitcoms:

1. Formatted like screenplays and similar to the one hour drama.
2. May or may not have formal act breaks written on the page (this depends on whether or not the show has commercial breaks. "Curb Your Enthusiasm,: and "Sex and the City" are on HBO, therefore they have no commercial breaks and read straight through. "The Simpsons," however, has three defined acts.
3. Dialogue and stage direction are single-spaced.
4. The characters are described in ALL CAPS the first time they are introduced.
5. Scripts are generally 28-32 pages in length.

Structure

The plots for these tend to be broad and simple. The show may have a major plot line (A story) and a minor plot line (B story), but may not have a runner. Each act tends to be between 3-5 scenes. The locations are fairly basic, though outside shots are more common than they used to be. The focus isn't on action, but on the wittiness of the repartee between the characters.

One page of sitcom script translates into about 30 seconds of screen time. In that time, there should be 3 to 5 solid jokes. These are jokes that are derived from the situations that the characters find themselves in. You have to know how to bring out the comedic nature of any situation.

Taped sitcoms, such as Two and a Half Men, use a specific format. It's videotaped in front of a live audience, will have a laugh track, and locations are limited.

In the half hour format, a scene break occurs when there is a major change in the location, time, and sometimes, actions. Ending one scene with a cut and beginning the next one on the following page indicates this. Scenes are designated with the alphabet, beginning with the letter A.

A Few Extra Words of Advice:

1. Be sure to capture the tone and character voices of the show you want to write for.
2. Executives want to read shows they know and they'll want to see if you know it, too.
3. Don't write a pilot. You have to be firmly established to pull this off. IF you do want to write a pilot, however, write a second episode and submit that. 99.9% of newer writers spend the first episode setting up the characters and the setting, which leaves little room for conflict, interest, or comedy.
4. Your spec script is your calling card, so make it great. There should be no punctuation or proofreading errors. A dropped comma or a missing question mark can change a meaning or indicate a lack of concern for the little things. Make it clean and professional.
5. Read as many scripts as you can. Do your research.
6. Remember - 12 point, Courier Font is an ABSOLUTE RULE for ALL scripts whether feature or television.
7. Have a theme. Be sure what your story's about and be clear on exactly what you want to say.
8. Listen to people talk. No one speaks in the same way. Listen to their choice of words; the rhythm of their speech; the cadences and pauses are all unique.
9. Make your characters listen to each other and respond in kind. You never want them talking at each other. They must react to what is being said. Invest emotions and reactions in them; it will say a lot about who they are and make them more multidimensional.
10. If you must use parentheticals (particularly in dramas), use them sparingly and only use them to enhance the dialogue. Sometimes body language does speak louder than the actual words. Use them to imply things the actor may use in performance. It can also serve to change the meaning of the dialogue entirely by saying one thing and doing something else.
11. Flesh out your characters beyond what the story actually needs. Look to the people you know, your own background, etc., for the little things that will make them jump off the page.
12. When writing narrative pieces, avoid inserting explanations or clarifications of things that aren't revealed in dialogue or action. If it hasn't been given before, there's no point to it and the forward motion of the story stops. Keep it short and sweet; this allows the action to continue on uninterrupted.
13. Never pad your script with dialogue and scenes that are added only to fill up space. If nothing is happening in the scene, cut it out.

TV format and Style Standards

While the nuts and bolts of formatting a pilot script for television are essentially the

same as that of a feature film, there are some key differences between the two

mediums. Feature film writing is all about telling a story that can be contained within

the confines of a three-act, two-hour film, but television is about finding ways to

expand the story and characters to grow and change over multiple hours and (if

you’re lucky) seasons. Many TV writers get their start working on established

shows, and understanding the professional format of a television series is essential:

adaptability is perhaps the most important skill for a television writer to have, as a

TV series is an ever-evolving narrative medium (especially in the streaming age) that

requires a writer to change along with the narrative goals within the series.

This guide will be divided into the following sections:

1. Formatting

2. Page Count

3. Audience

4. Type of Series

5. Present Tense and Scene Direction

6. Proofreading

7. Show Bible

8. Final Note

1. Formatting:

All scripts should be written in Courier 12 pt font. This standardized font size allows executives to estimate the length of the pilot based on the length of the script. It is no exaggeration to say that 99% of studio executives will NOT read a spec script that is written in a different font. Screenplay formatting is actually very complex, but there are many guides online that have all the information needed, including margin sizes, how to use slug lines, and all the other minutiae that goes into a properly-formatted pilot script. Serious writers would do well to invest in Final Draft, a screenwriting software that automatically formats your story correctly. A free alternative with almost all of the same features, Celtx, can be downloaded online. We also recommend Highland, which is an open-platform screenwriting software created by John August. Labeling the acts is the one fundamental difference between formatting a TV pilot versus a feature script. Just as reading a feature script should be as close as possible to the experience of watching the finished film, a TV pilot should give the reader the same dynamic experience of watching the show. For this reason, every act of the show, including the teaser/cold open and button (if applicable), should be centered, underlined and capitalized. At the end of an act, the same rule is applied - the beginning of Act One should start with ACT ONE and end with END OF ACT ONE. This creates a series of small cliffhangers within your script, timed just as the commercial or act breaks in a broadcast would be, so the reader knows how exciting every beat of the script is. As a general rule, 4-5 acts plus a teaser is standard for an hour-long series, while 3 acts suffices in a half-hour. Most comedies also include a tag at the end of each episode. Tags can take several forms, but most often, play off of a continuing story line from the series, call back to a joke from within the episode, or complete a joke that was established in the cold open. Tags are no more than three pages long, and play after the episode's formal act structure ends. With the advent of streaming (and therefore, no or limited commercial breaks) formalized act breaks may be less prominent in pilot scripts, but we still recommend including them in your pilot.

2. Page Count

This is not a hard and fast rule, but rather a helpful guideline to keep in mind. Industry executives and producers use a simple rule of thumb when reading a pilot script: 1 page equals 1 minute of screen time (this is where the standardized font size and margins come in). Unlike feature films, which can have varying page counts, the page count for television scripts is strict, and must be adhered to. Even if writing for a miniseries or limited series, all television pilot episodes must fall into one of two categories: the one-hour drama, or the half-hour comedy. Page counts are essential to networks and executives because of that all-important advertising space, something that must be accounted for when writing for television, even for streaming. The industry standard for the page count of a one hour-drama is between 45 and 75 pages. For half-hour comedies, this count needs to be between 22 and 45 pages. Webseries can vary widely in length, though usually shorter than a typical half hour. If your webseries pilot is longer than a typical half-hour show, you should upload it as an hour-long pilot. There is one formatting note that differs in multi-camera comedies from single-camera comedies: the dialogue is double-spaced throughout the script. Because of this, multi-camera comedies are between 52 and 58 pages in length. The basic rule of a minute of screen time per page is still very much in play, the high and low ends of each page count are reflective of the aims of the series: a half-hour comedy on a major network needs to allow more time for commercials than one on a premium cable station, and the same rule applies to one-hour shows. This still applies to multi-camera comedies intended for streaming services: while there may not be proper commercial breaks, the formatting of double-spaced dialogue remains the same.

3. Audience

The spectrum of distribution possibilities for a TV series presents a unique challenge to the writer in considering their audience. Understanding what type of channel a series is best suited for is imperative in fine-tuning its content and structure.  Premium Cable and Streaming (HBO, Showtime, Neflix, Hulu)​: These networks offer the most freedom in terms of format and content, but also attract the biggest talent and prestige projects. Premium cable networks and streaming platforms allow graphic content, so if a series is skewing towards more adult themes and content, it will probably be best suited for the premium cable arena - shows like Game of Thrones, Billions, and Narcos are a great example of this. Many premium cable networks do not include commercials nor do most streaming platforms; so pilot scripts for a network like HBO or Netflix can have a higher page count than those on basic cable or broadcast. However, these pilot scripts still need to adhere to the standard act structure. Basic Cable (AMC, FX, The History Channel)​: Basic cable networks have come to prominence in the last decade by developing original content like Mad Men, American Horror Story, and Breaking Bad that includes adult themes but doesn't go quite as far as that of premium cable content. With most television viewers subscribing to basic cable, the viewer base for these series is nearly as prominent as that of basic cable, but still has more freedom because of the pay restriction placed on these networks. Broadcast: (NBC, FOX, ABC, CBS, CW)​: Traditional broadcast series still reach the largest base of television viewers, and therefore, garner the most prominent advertisers. As a whole, graphic sexual and violent content aren't present in broadcast series, though there's no hard line between broadcast and basic cable - TV is an ever-evolving medium.

4. Type of Series

Understanding which type of network and audience a TV series is best-suited for goes hand in hand with deciding its format, and choosing the category a given series falls into is just as important as choosing the appropriate audience. There are four basic types of series: One-Hour Drama, Serialized (This Is Us, The Americans) or Procedural (NCIS, The Blacklist): There are two distinct types within the one-hour format - the procedural, and the serialized drama. Procedurals follow a blueprint each week, and often deal in a "case of the week" format that allows viewers to drop in even if an episode or episodes are missed. Archetypal characters are often used within the one-hour format, so that any viewer can watch any episode of the show and have a general idea of what the series is about. Serialized dramas don't follow a blueprint each week, and rely on viewers watching every episode, as their plot lines and character arcs progress each week. Both procedurals and serialized dramas can use elements from each other, but the former is mostly reserved for broadcast or basic cable, and the latter often finds a home on basic or premium cable. Procedurals are better suited for syndication as well, and if successful, provide networks with a strong potential for continued viewership. Half-Hour Comedy or Sitcom​: The half-hour format is usually reserved for more comedic series, including the sitcom. These series follow a three act structure, often including a teaser (also called a "cold open") and a tag at the end. Single Camera Format ​(Brooklyn Nine-Nine, Atlanta): Single camera shows are shot more like feature films, giving them a more cinematic look. Each shot is set up and filmed, as opposed to multiple cameras capturing a scene from many angles. Single camera shows don't require as many fixed sets as multi-camera sets, and offer more versatility within shot selection and the overall look of the show. However, the single camera format is also much more time-consuming to shoot, and therefore more costly, which can mean more pressure from a network to excel. Multi-Camera Format ​(Mom, Will & Grace): Shows that use multiple cameras often shoot in front of a studio audience, and are dependent on a few key sets in which most of the action takes place. Actors perform a scene, and it is captured from multiple angles, which provides more of a traditional sitcom look. Multi-camera shows often include a laugh track, and can be shot for a lower budget because of the economy found in shooting a scene from multiple angles, and the coverage it provides for actors. These shows can be made quickly as well, and follow a formula within their joke set-ups. Some feel that the multi-camera format limits actors because of its rigid set-up for actors and directors, but many series still perform well within this format. Limited Series/Miniseries​: (Twin Peaks: The Return, The Night Manager) – The terms “limited series” and “miniseries” are sometimes used interchangeably, but there are small differences between them. Both are reserved almost exclusively for dramas, but include a clear timeline of when the series will end. Limited series last longer, usually between 6 and 12 episodes, while a miniseries is typically 4-6 episodes, sometimes broadcast in blocks of two to create more of an event for the viewer. Either choice is a great option for writers who want to write an idea that needs more time to develop than a feature film, but couldn't see the idea as something to motivate multiple seasons of television. In rare cases, a limited series will get picked up for a second season, but typically the series reboots in a way that is atypical for TV – take the second or third seasons of American Horror Story or Big Little Lies, for instance. However, as streaming platforms continue evolving, the definitions of a “dramatic one-hour comedy” and a “funny half-hour drama” continue changing as well. Some examples of this would be BARRY, TRANSPARENT, and ORANGE IS THE NEW BLACK. While traditional rules for episode content should be kept in mind, as the way we watch television evolves, so too do the kinds of shows that can be presented within a given format.

5. Present Tense and Screen Direction

Pilot scripts should always be written in present tense. “He leans through the doorway and nods to her” rather than “He leaned through the doorway and nodded to her”. The scene direction should always keep the reader in the moment. Speaking of scene direction: a savvy writer will always find a way to make the scene direction dynamic. An unbroken 8-line block of prose to start each scene is boring to look at and can be a slog to get through. Pilot scripts are not books; they are meant to mimic the feeling of watching an episode. If something exciting is happening, it should be written in an exciting way to try to suggest how intense the scene will be once filmed. There is no hard and fast rule here, but large chunks of no-frills scene direction are extremely scarce in professional pilot scripts. Characters and locations requiring extensive description should be fleshed out in the Show Bible (see below) to make best use of the pilot script’s pages.

6. Proofreading

A simple spell check is not sufficient for proofreading a pilot script, although it is a good place to start. The issue is that many writers will simply use the wrong words while spelling them correctly, such as “collage” vs. “college” and the old standbys “your/you’re” and “their/there/they’re”. Spelling errors, missing or incorrect words and poor punctuation can devalue an writer’s script before it even has a chance to grab a reader’s attention. A harrowing death scene loses its intensity in a heartbeat with poor spelling or a misplaced exclamation point. More generally, it’s hard for an executive to bet big on a spec script that would get a C+ from a high school English teacher. In addition to a spell check, submitting writers should have a friend, family member or colleague with some experience in editing look over their work and ensure that everything is perfect. The writer themselves knows what the script is trying to say and has the potential to gloss over mistakes in a proofread because they are already familiar with the flow of the words. Getting an outsider to take a critical eye to the writer’s work before the cash investment for a read is made is strongly recommended.

7. Show Bible

In addition to a pilot episode, many TV writers also choose to write a "bible" or guide for their overall series when first presenting the show. The show bible is an invaluable asset that allows writers to explore larger themes, character arcs, and season-long dramatic events that may not be initially apparent in the pilot. An outstanding show bible includes sections that explain the logline for the series as a whole, the aims of the series as a whole over its first season and entire run, an idea of budget and central locations for the show, a detailed exploration of the themes, larger character directions (these are brief character biographies), and short summaries for later episodes/plot developments. For higher-concept series like The Strain, a show bible can include concept art, or a lookbook. Most show bibles don't exceed 5 pages, as the writer should still be able to convey the more complicated concepts within the show in a concise, informative way. Many writers find that including a show bible in their submission allows them more freedom to create an engrossing pilot script, especially when writing a serialized show in which each episode will be equally important.

8. Final Note

Remember that TV pilot scripts serve two functions: they introduce the reader to the world of the show, but they also must work as a stand-alone piece of entertainment. Make sure that your submitted pilot is fun to read and watch even if the pilot doesn’t get picked up to series. It is very possible to create a bad pilot from a great series concept, and it’s a trap many writers fall into because their focus is entirely on the goals of the entire series, rather than the impact of the pilot episode.

The 10 Key Rules of Writing for TV

1. Character Cast Size

Consider how many characters you will feature. Typically 4 or 5 with a stronger ‘lead’ character seems to work. Pick a handful of shows and check for yourself.

2. Characters in Conflict

Create characters that will constantly create their own conflict, even if just locked in a room together. Take a look atFamily Guy for example: a slob dad, an uptight mum, a scheming baby, and an intellectual dog. Put any two of those in a room together and they would be arguing in 5 minutes, just because their personalities are so different. Conflict is key, both for drama and comedy – and having characters that generate it automatically, rather than relying on outside ‘plot’ will be extremely helpful.

3. Characters Don’t Change

In general, if you’re writing a returning series, especially a sitcom, your characters shouldn’t change, grow or arc – they need to be reset to their default position at the end of every episode. They may learn, but they don’t grow (thinkScrubs). There are obvious exceptions to this, but it’s a good rule of thumb.

4. Make Characters Want Things

Give characters goals and motivations – make them want to achieve things. This should keep them moving, and bring them into conflict with other characters (when they want different things, or both want the same thing but only one of them can have it.

5. Use ABC plotting

Your A plot is the main storyline, your B plot the secondary storyline, and your C plot (if used), the tertiary. Use a roughly 60/30/10 split. Giving characters goals (i.e. the previous point) is a great way of generating these plots.

6. Ad Breaks are Act Breaks

If you’re writing for a broadcaster who advertises, your act breaks will come at the ad breaks. These all need to be cliffhangers (N.B. there are different types of cliffhanger). If you’re going to show without adverts, then you need to figure out your own act breaks. Typically there are 4 acts in television.

7. Dialogue Comes Last

Snappy dialogue is the hallmark of much good telly, but it shouldn’t be your focus, even in sitcoms. Good structure, good plotting and good characters should make the dialogue easy to write – so focus on those first.

8. Create a Series Bible

Even if you’re only writing one or two episodes on spec, create a series bible that contains the bigger picture. Character bios, episode outlines for the whole series, maybe some background, notes on the setting etc. Keep it snappy and interesting though – the word ‘bible’ can be misleading – think of it more as a pitch document.

9. Research the Formatting

Do as much research into formatting as possible. It can vary quite widely and you need to match it to the preferred style of whomever you are submitting to.

10. Know your Audience(s)

You need to have a specific audience in mind – a good way to research this is paying attention to the target market of adverts played during similar shows. You also need to have an idea when you see your show airing and what content is suitable for that time. Research the watershed rules. Finally, you need to know who broadcasts shows like this: BBC 1 and BBC 3 are very different, let alone Channel 4, Sky, and of course all the independent production companies. Do your research.

Writing a TV Script

How To Write For TV

If You Want To Get Into TV Script Writing You’ll Need A “Spec” Script (Or Three)

As in the land of features, if you want to break in, you’ll need a “spec” script— i.e. a script written “speculatively” that showcases your talents and can be used as a calling card.

In TV, there are two main types of spec script:

• “Spec episode” for an existing TV show
• “Spec pilot” for an original TV show

Let’s take a quick look at both of these in turn.

How To Write For TV: The Spec Episode

In the world of TV script writing, a “spec” usually means a sample episode of an existing show. It’s also known as a “TV spec”, “sample episode” and “spec episode” and for the sake of clarity we’re going to use the latter.

Writing a spec episode is the traditional way writers use to break into television writing, but it’s less in vogue now than a few years ago. This entails writing an episode of an existing TV series that showcases your ability to write current characters that people know and love, in a way that feels real and familiar, yet fresh.

It means writing characters with pre-set voices and personalities in order to demonstrate that you are not only a powerful writer with an imagination, but also one who can follow the rules, and this means following the show’s formatting structure and overall “voice” of the show.

Writing a spec episode of, say, Modern Family, would require you writing all the families as we know them now, with their quirky character personalities, breaking the fourth wall, documentary style, etc. and all within intertwining, compelling and funny stories.

A while back, this was by far the best way to break into writing for television. You’d write a spec episode of a series you loved, and then submit that work through your agent or manager for consideration for a staffing position.

Executives and showrunners would hire writers who could effectively emulate the tone and voice of the show they were staffing, and a spec episode was the best way to measure that ability.

But times have changed, and so too has the professional strategy for breaking into television writing. In Hollywood today, spec episodes are much less popular than they used to be, and some showrunners now only read spec pilots for original shows.

This is not to say, however, that writing a spec episode is a complete waste of your time as you’re still building your writing chops, and will also be able to use it as a sample of your writing ability that could get you noticed.

How To Write For TV: The Spec Pilot

This is a TV script written on spec for an original show you’ve created from scratch and is also known as an “original spec”, “sample pilot” or simply a “pilot”. Again, for clarity, we’ll be sticking to the term “spec pilot”.

It’s easy to imagine that writing a TV show that’s compelling and original is as simple as writing a feature screenplay, but shorter. Unfortunately, you’d be wrong on two counts: not only is writing a feature about as difficult as it gets, but writing a television pilot is in some ways even more difficult.

Sure, the page count is slimmer, but the reality is a pilot functions as a seed for the series it’s jumpstarting. And in order to write a pilot that works as both a writing sample, and a potentially salable and produceable series, you have to consider the rest of the tree before you even plant the seed.

Whether you intend to write a TV series for a network or cable, the most important element is that you bring your voice to the project. That it is unique and stands out from the stack of spec TV scripts piled on the desk of any rep, producer or executive.

It’s no secret that we’re going through a second “golden age of television,” and that bold creative choices garner critical praise and admiration not only from executives and producers but also, ultimately, high ratings from audiences worldwide.

In other words, television that makes bold creative choices is good for business.   All of which means that showing you can emulate the voice of an existing show has become much less valuable than demonstrating that you have a unique point of view and the ability to tell an original narrative in an exciting way.

Which TV Scripts Should I Write Then? A Spec Episode Or Pilot?

The answer to this is that ideally you should have both. The odds of writing an original pilot, having it be purchased, produced, be ordered for a run, and be the showrunner or even an executive producer are astronomical, even less than selling a feature spec. But having an original pilot is still important.

An original pilot shows what you can do when it comes to creating fresh new worlds, marketable concepts, and original characters. Fresh voices are always sought after, and always welcomed. As in the land of features, your voice and your view on the world, is what makes you stand out on paper. So we advise writing a spec episode and a spec original pilot to show the breadth of your talents, and to give yourself the best possible chance of getting staffed on an existing show.

As someone looking to start a career writing TV show scripts, we also recommend creating a portfolio that tonally compliments itself. In other words, write an original spec pilot of a show that tonally and thematically explores the same areas as your spec episode of an existing show.

For example, let’s say you’ve written a dark spec pilot that really pushes the envelope when it comes to crime drama. In this case, you’d probably do well to spec an episode of, say, Sneaky Pete, which shows your ability to also handle more mainstream TV sensibilities.

Let’s now take a look at six steps you should take when learning how to write for tv. These are the fundamental questions that should get you started as you consider how to write a script for a TV show, whether that’s a spec TV episode or pilot.

How To Write For TV Step #1: Decide Where You’d Feel Most At Home

Imagine for a moment your ideal TV writing gig… Are you staffed on a network channel like ABC or NBC? Or on cable, i.e. on a show airing on HBO or FX? This is a crucial distinction, as your answer will dictate the tone and style of spec TV scripts you’ll be writing.

NETWORKS

If you think you’d feel more at home writing for a network, you’ll be defined by a sense of (for lack of a better word) conventionality. These channels are the homes of work house series that rarely veer too far from a relatively rigid format.

Think of shows like Grey’s Anatomy or Modern Family. If you consider their structures by breaking down individual episodes into specific beats, you’ll find that they follow the same arc in almost every episode. While it might sound like this would make these series easier to write, the opposite is most often true, as finding a series that will function on the 500th episode in a fashion similar to its first episode is a taxing process.

CABLE & STREAMING

If, on the other hand, you think you’re more of a cable or specialty homes type of writer (think streaming services like Netflix and Hulu), your work will have more scope for originality. This medium naturally invites a more exciting degree of novelty as it allows the writer to branch out from traditional structure for both comedy and hour-long drama. In this space you can let your wildest creative impulses guide you in a more broad and expansive direction.

Look at a series like Atlanta, or True Detective, or Insecure. These shows upend convention and focus more specifically on the creators’ unique voices. They play around with audience expectation, giving us one-off episodes that follow secondary characters, their protagonists and worlds that are often reflective more of their creators’ worldview than any expectation of what a show “should be like.” A worldview which is often imposed on new writers by network and studio executives.

On a more pragmatic level, cable shows offer more flexibility in terms of profanity, violence and on-screen sexuality.  These series are often presented in a limited number of episodes, i.e. to tell an anthology story, as opposed to a franchise designed to run for decades. In other words, there are more creative liberties for you as a creator, and currently there is also more opportunity in this space.

Overall, if you want to write this type of show, your choice of content is not so restricted. Procedurals—including shows about hospitals, police work and legal fields—tend to land on traditional TV.  But if you want to go all out with zombies, sci-fi or any other genre, you will find endless creative freedom beyond the boundaries of network television.

How To Write For TV Step #2: Pick A Couple Of Shows You Love

Firstly, what TV shows do you absolutely LOVE? And secondly, what genre are they?

This may seem like a simple statement to make, but it’s important that you focus on the genre and type of show that’s going to keep you excited, rather than writing something just because it’s “current”.

Your enthusiasm for the tone and genre of script you’re writing will come across on the page — in the story world, plot, characters, dialogue, and so on. So start by making a list of your favorite shows and then decide what one you want to write as a spec episode or emulate in a spec pilot.

However, rather than write a list that contains both drama and comedy, pick one over the other. As a newbie television writer, you’re much better off positioning yourself within a certain genre, instead of attempting to be a jack-of-all-trades who can “write anything”.

Deciding on a genre is about as elemental as it gets, but it will give your script its first embryonic shape. Do you want to write drama? If so, then your TV scripts should typically fall somewhere between 55 and 65 pages. If you want to write comedy TV show scripts, then they should be landing around the 25 page mark, but these are by no means hard and fast rules.

Once you know where your natural TV writing habitat lies — network or cable — what your favorite shows are within that space, and whether you want to kick off with a spec episode or spec pilot, you’re ready to start some serious research.

A quick note on writing TV spec episodes: Pick a show that’s popular and currently on air.  For example, even though Frasier may be your favorite show of all time, once a show is over it becomes obsolete in terms of using it as a writing sample.

How To Write For TV Step #3: Research Your Chosen Show(s) To Death

Attempting to learn how to write a TV script without actually studying your chosen show, is a bit like trying to learn to play rock guitar without learning any Hendrix licks. Make it your mission to know whatever show you want to write or emulate, inside out. Do this by doing the following:

READ TV SCRIPTS

Go to a screenplay download site, such as SimplyScripts or Script City and download as many episodes of your favorite show as you can and get reading.

You want to go for the actual teleplays, though, and not one of those ubiquitous “transcripts”. These just contain someone’s transcript of the dialogue and nothing else. Reading the actual TV scripts of the series you want to write or emulate is probably the best way to learn how to write for TV.

WRITE OUTLINES OF TV SHOWS

We’re big believers in writing outlines of movies as you watch them and then breaking them down in order to master structure, and the same goes for writing a TV series. Simply, sit down with your laptop and type out what happens on screen in one or two sentences. Then break down the resulting document into sequences and acts.

This is an invaluable writing exercise on learning how to write for TV and you can sign up to our newsletter to get a copy of our free structure hack.

TRANSCRIBE TV SHOWS

I know a moment ago we told you not to bother with reading transcripts, but actually writing them yourself is another matter altogether as you’ll learn so much about how to write for TV. Whereas writing outlines is great for learning about structure, writing transcripts is great for dialogue and will really help you find the voice of your characters.

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READ BOOKS ON HOW TO BECOME A TV WRITER

There are some great books out there on how to write for TV such as

Writing the TV Drama: How to Succeed as a Professional Writer in TV by Pamela Douglas and Writing The Pilot, by William Rabkin that every aspiring TV writer should read.

From doing all of the above, you’ll not only learn the exciting stuff on how to write for TV, but also the less exciting stuff — the technicalities…

How To Write For TV Step #4: Master TV Script Formatting

Now, we know you can’t wait to get stuck in and start creating that unique world or kick-ass episode of an existing show, but it’s important to also be able to present your TV script professionally. And that means making sure you get the formatting spot on.

If you’re used to writing feature screenplays, then switching to TV scripts shouldn’t be too much problem as the fundamentals are pretty much the same. Especially when it comes to writing a single-camera show for cable or streaming.

TV SCRIPT SOFTWARE

However, the first thing you want to do is purchase a professional screenwriting program, such as Final Draft or Movie Magic if you don’t already own one, which will make sure everything’s up to industry standard.

Final Draft handily has the TV script formats for many of the most popular shows preloaded in its template database. There are some free screenwriting software options out there  but if you want to take breaking into TV script writing seriously, we’d recommend spending a bit on some pro gear.

Professional script writing software will take most of the formatting heavy lifting out of your hands, leaving you to concentrate on what counts — the story and characters. The biggest thing you’ll have to watch out for when writing a TV script, is its structure, as this will affect the formatting.

TV FORMAT & STRUCTURE

Broadly speaking, your TV script’s structure will fall into one of the three categories below:

• 1 hour drama. This is a 60 minute show that may or may not contain commercial breaks. They can roughly be broken down into procedurals such as The Mentalist, i.e. self-contained stories every week, and serialized shows such as Homeland, in which the plot line develops from episode to episode.
• 30 minute single-camera comedy. Single-cams feel more like a feature film as they’re shot in the same way, sometimes utilizing a hand-held camera style. Examples include The Goldbergs and Curb Your Enthusiasm.
• 30 minute multi-camera comedy. Multi-camera comedies represent the traditional way of filming sitcoms: in a studio, sometimes in front of a live audience, sometimes with a laughter track. Frasier and Last Man Standing are both examples of this format.

As we’ve mentioned, there’s not that great deal of a difference between writing features and TV writing. The main difference between the two — and also between writing a 1 hour drama and 30 minute comedy — is how the stories are structured.

So let’s now take a brief look at the different structures of each of these three TV script formats. 

1 HOUR DRAMA

Here are the main elements of a 1 hour TV drama — all of which, unlike in features, are written directly onto the page by the writer:

• Teaser
• Act 1
• Act 2
• Act 3
• Act 4
• Act 5 (sometimes)

Some contain commercial breaks while others don’t. If they do, then the next time you watch your favorite drama, note where they land as these will give you your act breaks.

Here’s an example of 1 hour TV script formatting from the Breaking Bad  pilot:

Generally speaking, the Teaser takes up the first two to five pages, introduces the audience to the characters and story world, and (hopefully) hooks them into wanting to see more. Then the subsequent acts each gain in conflict, much like in a feature, and end on a big cliffhanger to hook the audience into watching the next act or episode.

If you’re writing for a network, each one prefers their acts at different lengths and to be broken down in different ways, so you will want to tailor your script according to their preferences. This is where you as a writer need to do your research.

How To Write For TV Step #5: Write A Jaw-Droppingly Good Script

Now that you’ve decided where you’d like to work, in what genre, and mastered the basics of formatting, you can start to get into the fun stuff: writing a killer TV script that will open doors for you.

This is, of course, easier said than done, but this is where your talent and perseverance as a writer needs to come to the fore. We don’t have the space in this post to get into the minutiae of how to write a TV show script (there are plenty of great books on writing for TV out there) so we’re going to focus here on the most important element you should take away with you.

This is most relevant question you can ask yourself if you’re writing an original 1 hour spec pilot is:

What’s my personal connection to this material?

In other words, why are you the ONLY person who could tell this story? The more specific and honest an answer you can give to this question, the more value you’ll bring to the material.

The first step of breaking into the TV writing business using a spec pilot is writing one that communicates you, your worldview, and your unique story. Not only should this pilot sample be a reflection of your interests and vision, it should be loud and attention getting. This is your calling card, so make it something special and you will be presenting yourself as a strong addition to any writing staff.

A way to really stand out amongst the crowd of TV writing aspirants, consider building out a “show bible” — a document that touches on the broad goals of your series. Address character, set up, what each individual episode feels like, and how you view the series growing beyond a single season.

Really dig into what your primary story arcs are, and how they’ll integrate into the B and C stories. Basically, what are the beats that define your series? What are the most significant elements that make your series unique?

Is your series a procedural, where every episode of each season follows the same pattern? Or is it an anthology series like American Horror Story, which reboots its story each season, in spite of having a thematic through-line? In other words: you’ve written a great pilot, but you’re also considering the future of your concept.

Admittedly, this is a challenging prospect, but one that will serve you well in the long term. Not only will you have a greater understanding of what your series is (and how to pitch it), you’ll also be in a stronger position to sell your work if you ever find yourself in the position of doing so down the line.

How To Write For TV Step #6: Research How To Break Into The Industry

Once you’ve completed the hard work of actually writing your brilliant new TV script, you’re undoubtedly eager to share your work with the most powerful hands in Hollywood. And this is where the real work begins…

GAINING REPRESENTATION

As with writing features, your best bet is to find a manager or producer who accepts submissions or queries, and do whatever you need to do to get your work in front of them.

The general thing you want to do, though, is to fully research the lay of the land and where your TV spec may find a home. Work out who are the people you want to get your work in front of — people who fit your brand, genre, sensibilities, and target demographic. For example, there’s no point submitting your dark n’ edgy crime thriller to Nickelodeon.

In short, even if you have a terrific manager already, or land one in your pursuit of staffing success, the truth is you truly do need a television agent to break into the industry. Television agents have a special relationship with staffing executives and producers, and without making it past this threshold, you have very little chance of even booking a general meeting with television executives.

There are, however, a few other viable routes which you can use which circumvent the traditional need for representation in order to staff: TV writing contests, fellowships, and labs.