Attribution of Sources

Attribution of Sources

Attribution is stating who said something. Attribution is essential in all the media, including radio and television. Journalists do it so that your readers or listeners can know who is speaking or where the information in the story comes from. You can use attribution for both spoken and written information, so that you attribute information gathered from interviews, speeches, reports, books, films or even other newspapers, radio or television stations. In a moment we will discuss when you need to use attribution. First, however, we will look briefly at how attribution works in reported speech.

Reported speech

In the previous chapter, we mainly looked at attribution as it applied to quotes. However, attribution should be used whenever you want your readers or listeners to know where your information comes from. For example, in reported speech the attribution is still part of the sentence, although it is not as distinct as when you use a direct quote. In both of the following sentences, we attribute the words to Ms Mar. In the first, her words are in quotes; in the second they are put into reported speech. The attribution is in italics:

QUOTE:
Ms Mar said: "Students can expect no special treatment if they go on strike."

REPORTED SPEECH:
Ms Mar said that students could expect no special treatment if they went on strike.

Notice how, in the reported speech, we had to change the verb "can" to "could" and the verb "go" to "went". This is because, although quotes must be word-for-word, reported speech is a report of something which was said in the past, so the tenses have to be changed. 

The use of the linking word "that" is usually optional in reported speech. It is often left out to reduce the length of the sentence, but should be included whenever it makes the meaning of a sentence clearer. It is often used to separate the verb of attribution from a following verb. Compare the two examples. Notice how including "that" in the second example makes the meaning clearer:

The doctor felt many women worried about their health.

The doctor felt that many women worried about their 

How often should you use attribution?

The good journalist has to strike a balance between the need to make clear attribution of statements and the risk of boring the reader with too many phrases such as "he said".

It helps to change the word "said" occasionally, in attributing both quotes and reported speech. Some useful alternatives are "warned", "suggested", "urged", "asked” and "disclosed". But beware: each of these has a specific meaning. Check that it is the correct one for what your speaker said and the way they said it.

The phrase "according to" can be used in attributing reported speech, but do not use it more than once with any single speaker. Although it is usually a neutral term, not suggesting either belief or disbelief, if you use it too often it can give the impression that you doubt the information the speaker has given. 

There are other, more obvious danger words to avoid. Words such as "stated" and "pointed out" both imply that what the speaker said is an undisputed fact. You can, for example, point out that the world is round, but you cannot point out that this cake is delicious, because that is an opinion.

Also avoid the word "claimed", which suggests that you do not believe what is being said. Be especially careful when reporting court cases. Lawyers and the police like to use the word "claimed" to throw doubt on opposition statements. You must not do the same.

The exact balance of attribution depends on the kind of story you are writing or the material you can use. If the statements are reliably factual throughout, you only need to attribute occasionally. If, however, the story is heavy with opinion or unreliable statements, you should attribute at least once every two sentences.

Attributing facts and opinions

One of the greatest dangers facing young journalist is accepting what people say as the truth. Just because someone tells you that something is a fact does not make it so.

There are some things which are universally accepted as true, for example that the world is round, that Tuesday follows Monday, that Fiji is in the Pacific. But there are also things which people want you to believe are true but which are either not provable or are lies. These people may not knowingly tell a lie, but many people are careless with the truth.

Also, situations may change, so that the truth at one moment may be wrong the next. Attribution helps you to overcome some of these problems. Attribution is the act of specifying who said what. 

If you attribute the words to the person who said them, you do not have to prove or disprove the truth of their words; you simply report them. Also, people judge what is said by the person who says it. Statements made by people in authority carry more weight than statements made by other people. 

Look at the following example. The attribution is the phrase said the vice-chancellor Ms Una Mar:

Striking students who miss exams will be given fail marks, said the vice-chancellor Ms Una Mar.

In this case, you may have very little doubt that this is exactly what will happen. But there is always the chance that Ms Mar will change her mind and give the students a second chance. By attributing the statement to Ms Mar, you protect yourself against this possibility. Thus, if the students do get a second chance, you can say to your critics: "We didn't say it, Ms Mar did."

In any case, your readers will be interested to know what public figures believe to be true. Even if it is later found that Ms Mar was mistaken, it is interesting to know that she once believed she would fail the students. As soon as you find out she has changed her mind, you can carry a news story saying so, recalling the previous story attributed to Ms Mar.

Clear and undisputed facts

In cases where there is undeniable evidence that something is so, you obviously do not have to attribute facts. In the following example, the weather was observable. Who is going to argue?

High winds and torrential rain lashed Port Moresby today, bringing down trees and flooding parts of Waigani Drive.

Neither do you need to attribute if you have witnessed the event yourself, for example while reporting from a court:

The National Court sitting in Kieta has sentenced a man to 12 years imprisonment with hard labour for rape.

The court has found the man guilty of rape. You saw the judge sentence him. You can state it as a fact.

There is another category of stories which appear to be true because of the reliability of the sources. These are statements made by people in authority who are in a position to know, such as the police chief telling you about an arrest or the farm manager talking about his cooperative. In such cases, you might not attribute the facts in the intro, but your readers and listeners will still want to know how reliable your information is. So you must attribute the facts further down the story:

A gang of youths ran riot through Boroko shopping centre yesterday, smashing car windscreens and shop windows.
Police said about 30 youths were involved and all are thought to be from Morata.

or:

The Pago Farm Cooperative plans to double its rice production to 200 tonnes next year.
Manager Mr Irwin Neman revealed the plans yesterday at a ceremony to mark the cooperative's second anniversary.

In both cases, the sources are reliable enough for the intros to stand on their own. Attributing the information has added extra weight to them. Your readers or listeners can judge how reliable the information is.

Opinions

There is no alternative to attribution when statements made are opinions. If you do not attribute an opinion to an individual, your audience will assume that it is your own opinion - and there is no excuse for that kind of confusion in a news story.

Your problem may come in deciding what is a verifiable fact and what is only opinion. In many cases this is easy:

Localisation in the public service has been rapid, but the quality of work is still below expectations, according to Home Affairs Minister Mr Barney Kina.

With a concept as vague as "quality of work", this can only be an opinion, even expressed by a senior minister. You will often find that opinions use vague and unspecific language. 

In cases where fact and opinion are not easily separated, play safe and attribute the story.

Attributing a statement to someone is no defence in a claim for defamation. If you wrongly accuse a person of being a thief, it is no excuse to say that you were just quoting someone else.

Reliable sources

In some cases, your sources of information may not want to be named, for fear of revenge. Journalists who are sure of their facts often attribute such information to "usually reliable sources", "informed sources" or "sources within the department/company".

In some cases, they use phrases like "it is widely believed that" or "it is understood that". Be warned! If your information is wrong, the blame will rest at your door. The greatest danger comes in "off the record" interviews. You must always consult your news editor or chief of staff about what you can and cannot say in such cases. 

TO SUMMARISE:

Quotes are an important tool for print journalists, but they should never be used on radio, and only as text on television.

Always attribute quotes to the speaker or source of information.

You can use alternative words to "said", but beware that they may have distinct meanings and may imply support or disbelief.

Attribute all opinions and information which is not a clear and undisputed fact.

Writing Captions for Photographs

Writing Captions for Photographs

Captioning photos is an important part of journalism. Captions must be accurate and informative. In fact, most readers tend to look at the photos, and then the captions, in a story before they decide whether they want to read the story itself. Use the following points to help write a caption that will intrigue the reader enough to read the story.

Learning Caption Basics

Check your facts. One of the most important aspects of any type of journalism is accuracy. If you use incorrect information, the story or photo loses credibility. Before uploading or printing any photo captions, make sure you’ve checked that anything stated in the caption is accurate.

·         Don’t print an incorrect caption if you have trouble checking your facts, either because you can’t find an appropriate source, or because you’re on a deadline. It’s better to leave the information out if you aren’t sure it’s accurate.

Describe something that isn’t obvious. If a photo caption simply describes the visuals in the photo, it’s fairly useless. If you have a photo of a sunset and simply caption is as “a sunset” you’re not adding any additional information for the reader. Instead, describe details of the photo that are not obvious, like the location, the time of day or year, or a specific event that is taking place.

·         For example, if you have a photo of a sunset you might want to caption it as: “Pacific coast sunset, March2016, from Long Beach, Vancouver Island."

·         Also avoid using terms like: “is shown,” “is pictured,” “and looks on,” or “above."

Do not start a caption with certain words. A caption should not begin with the words ‘a,’ ‘an,’ or ‘the.’ These words are too basic and take up valuable captioning room when they aren’t necessary. For example, instead of saying: “A blue jay in the boreal forest;” simply say: “Blue jay flying through boreal forest.”

·         Also, do not start a caption with the name of someone, start the caption with a description first and then include the name. For example, don’t say: “Stan Theman near Sunshine Meadow Park.” Instead say: “Jogger Stan Theman near Sunshine Meadow Park."

·         When identifying where someone is in a photo, you can say “from left.” You do not have to say “from left to right."

Identify the main people in the photo. If your photo includes important people, identify who they are. If you know their names, include them (unless they’ve asked to remain anonymous). If you don’t know their names, you might want to put a description of who they are instead (e.g. “protesters on the streets of Washington, DC”).

·         While it shouldn’t need to be said, make sure any and all names you use are spelled correctly and have the proper title.

·         If the photo includes a group of people, or some people who are not relevant to the story (i.e. their names are not required to tell the story), you do not have to name each of them in the caption.

Be as specific as possible. This advice goes hand-and-hand with being accurate. If you are unsure of where the photo was taken, or who is in the photo, find out. Showing a photo without any specific information may not be useful to the reader, especially if you cannot inform them of the context in which the photo was taken.

·         If you were working with another journalist for the story, contact them for more information if needed.

·         If you are trying to identify a specific person in the photo, describing where in the photo they are is very useful. For example, if Bob Smith is the only one in a hat, you can say: “Bob Smith, back row in hat."

·         While specific is good, you can also phrase your caption so that is starts general and becomes more specific, or starts specific and ends more generally. Either method ensures specificity, but creates easy-to-ready statements.

Label historical photos properly. If you’re using an historical photo in your story, make sure it’s labelled properly and includes the date (at least the year) it was taken. Depending on who owns the photo, you may also need to credit another photography and/or organization (e.g. museum, archive, etc.).

Use the present tense in captions. Because most photos being shown as part of a news story are of things happening “right now,” use the present tense in the caption. An obvious exception would be any historical photos, where using the past tense makes sense.

·         The nice thing about using the present tense is that it portrays a sense of immediacy and increases the impact of the photo on the reader.

Avoid humour when the photo isn’t intended to be humorous. If the photo you’re captioning is of a serious or sombre event, don’t try to be funny in the caption. Funny captions should only be used when the photo itself is a joke or of a funny event that is intended to make the reader laugh.

Remember to always include credits and citations. Every photo should include the name of the photographer and/or the organization that owns the photograph. In actual photographic magazines and publications, photos also include the technical details of how the photo was taken (e.g. aperture, film speed, f-stop, lens, etc.)

·         When writing the credits, you don’t have to use the term “credited to” or “photo by” if the information is presented in a consistent and understandable format. For example, maybe the credits are always italicized or are a smaller font size.

Enhancing the Story with Captions

Use the caption to tell the reader something new. When a reader looks at the photo they’re usually confronted with some form of emotion and some information (based on what they see in the photo). The caption, in turn, should provide the reader with a piece of information they were unaware of from simply looking at the photo. In short, the caption should teach the reader something about the photo.

·         Captions should intrigue a reader to investigate the story further and look for more information.

·         Captions should also refrain from repeating aspects of the story itself. The caption and the story should complement each other and not be repetitive.

Avoid making judgemental statements. Captions should be informative, not judgemental or critical. Unless you were actually able to speak to the people in the photo, and asked them what they were feeling or thinking, don’t make assumptions based only on their appearance in the photo. For example, avoid “unhappy shoppers waiting in line” unless you actually know they were unhappy.

·         Journalism is intended to be objective and informative for the reader. Journalists are suppose to present the facts in an unbiased way and allow the reader to form an opinion.

Do not worry about length of the caption. A photo may say a thousand words, but sometimes a few words are required to put the photo in context. If a lengthy description is required in order to allow the photo to make sense, that’s okay. While you want to try to be as clear and succinct as possible, don’t limit the information in your caption if it will be helpful.

Write in a conversational language. Journalism, in general, doesn’t use overly complicated language. But it also doesn’t use cliches or slang. Captions should follow the same basic language requirements. Write your captions in a conversational tone, similar to the way you’d address a family member if you were showing them the photo. Avoid cliches and slang (and acronyms). Don’t use complicated words if they aren’t needed.^[19]

·         If the photo is accompanied by a story, try to use the same tone in the caption that was used in the story.

Include unessential story items in the captions. Stories that accompany photos tend to be about something specific and, obviously, tell a story. If there is a piece of information that is useful to understanding the photo, but isn’t necessary in telling the story, put it in a caption instead of in the body of the story.

·         This doesn’t mean that captions are only used for unimportant items of the story, but rather items that are not essentially to the telling of the story. A caption can be a free-standing mini-story that can include items not used within the story itself.

·         Again, remember that the caption and story should complement each other. Not repeat each other.

Determine what punctuation should be used. If the photo is simply of a person (e.g. headshot) or a photo of a very specific item (e.g. umbrella), it’s okay to caption the photo with the name of the person or item without any punctuation. In other cases, it is also okay to use incomplete sentences in a caption, but this may depend upon the publication and their requirements.

·         An example of a caption without punctuation might be: “Toyota 345X Transmission"

·         An example of the difference between a complete and incomplete caption: Complete — “Actress Ann Levy takes the Acura 325 for a spin on the British test drive course in London.” Incomplete — “Taking the Acura 325 for a spin."

Simplify descriptions in subsequent captions. If multiple, consecutive photos in a story show either the same place or person or event, it is not necessary to keep repeating the details of these items in each caption. For example, if you introduce the person in the first caption using their full name, you can simply refer to them with they last name in subsequent captions.

·         It is okay to assume that someone viewing and reading one photo have viewed and read the captions of the previous photos since they likely are in a specific order that tells a story.

·         You can also skip being too detailed in the caption if the story itself provides a lot of details. For example, if the story tells the details of the event, you do not have to repeat those details in the captions.

Identify when photos have been digitally altered. Photos are sometimes enlarged, shrunk, or cropped in order to fit the situation, story, page, space, etc. This type of altering doesn’t need to be explained because it doesn’t change what is in the image. However, if you’ve changed the photo in any other way (i.e. changed the colour, removed something, added something, enhanced something unnaturally, etc.) you must identify this in the caption.

·         The caption doesn’t have to explicitly say what you’ve changed, but should at least state “photo illustration."

·         This rule also goes for unique photography methods like time-lapse, etc.

Considering using a caption-writing formula. Until you get use to writing captions, you might want to start by using a specific formula. Eventually your captions will likely follow this formula, or something similar, without you needing to think about it. But until then, rely on the formula to ensure you’ve included all the needed items.

·         One such formula is: [noun] [verb] [direct object] during [proper event name] at [proper noun location] in [city] on [day of the week], [month] [date], [year]. [Why or how.]

·         An example written using this formula: "Dallas firefighters (noun) battle (present-tense verb) a fire (direct object) at the Fitzhugh Apartments (proper noun location) near the intersection of Fitzhugh Avenue and Monarch Street in Dallas (city) on Thursday (day of the week), July (month) 1 (date), 2004 (year).”

Avoiding Caption Mistakes

Do not be arrogant. Arrogance in captions comes when the person writing the caption doesn’t care about the reader, and simply writes a caption that is easy at the moment of writing. This can also be consider being selfish because the writer cares more about themselves than the reader who is trying to decipher what the photo and story are about.

·         This can also happen when a writer is trying to be ‘fancy’ and try something new or clever. There is no need to get complicated. Keep things simple, clear, and accurate.

Avoid making assumptions. You know what they say about people who assume … ! The same goes for writing captions. These assumptions could be on the part of the journalist, photographer, or even someone else at the publication where everything is being put together. Don’t make assumptions about what was going on in the photo, or who the people are. Find out the truth and only include what’s accurate.

·         This also goes for style and format. If you aren’t sure if the publication has a specific format for captions, ask. Don’t use a format you like that may need to be completely revised later because you didn’t ask.

Make sure you aren’t sloppy. Sloppiness happens when someone just doesn’t care, or doesn’t consider the situation important enough to double-check. The result of sloppiness can be incorrect spelling, the wrong names for people in the photo, captions that don’t match the photos, referring to a photo in the story incorrectly, etc. If you’re proud of your work, do a good job from start to finish.

·         This can also happen when someone tries to use another language in the caption, but doesn’t check if it has been written properly. Google Translate is not the same as double-checking if the language is correct!

Remember that what you print is considered fact. As a journalist, whatever you print either in your story or caption is usually considered fact by your readers. They rightfully assume you’ve done your fact-checking and that what you’re telling them is accurate. If you were too lazy or sloppy to do the job, you risk passing along incorrect information to a large number of people.

·         Also remember that once information gets “out there,” it can be hard to correct. Especially if that information is related to an event that was tragic, stressful or still ongoing.

Writing Editorials

An editorial is an article that presents a group's opinion on an issue and because of this, it is usually unsigned. Just like a lawyer would, editorial writers build on an argument already made and try to persuade readers to agree with them on a current, burning issue. In essence, an editorial is an opinion piece with a side of news.

The Basics

1.      Pick your topic and angle. Editorials are meant to influence public opinion, promote critical thinking, and sometimes cause people to take action on an issue. Your topic should be current, interesting, and have a purpose. There are generally four types of editorials:

·         Explaining or interpreting: This format is used to explain how and why a newspaper or magazine took a certain stance on a controversial subject.

·         Criticizing: This format criticizes actions or decisions made on a third party's part in addition to offering a better solution. It's more to get the readers to see that there is a larger problem at hand.

·         Persuading: This type is used to move the reader to action, concentrating on solutions, not the problem.

·         Praising: This format is used to show support for people and organizations in the community that have done something notable.

2.      Get your facts straight. An editorial is a mix of fact and opinion; not solely the writer's opinion, but the opinion of the entire staff. Your fact collection should include objective reporting and research.

·         A good op-ed needs to contain at least one "point of enlightenment" which can be described as "an observation that is fresh and original."^[2] So, get your facts from a number of different sources, pointing out patterns, impending consequences, or a hole in current analysis.

3.      Keep it user-friendly. Typically, editorials are for a fairly quick, captivating read. They are not meant to go on for pages and pages, belaboring the point. Nor are they meant to make the average Joe feel as if he's missed something. Make sure your editorial isn't lengthy or overly esoteric.

·         Keep it to about 600-800 words.^[2] Anything longer and you risk losing your reader. A short, snappy, fiery piece is much more captivating than a wordy lecture.

·         Eliminate the jargon. Your audience is reading your article for information on something they seek to understand; using technical terms or specific jargon may be off-putting and make your article difficult to take in. Keep the lowest common denominator in mind.

Writing  Editorials

Start your editorial with a thesis-like statement. The introduction--the first one or two paragraphs--should be designed to catch the reader's attention. You can start with a rich question, a quote, or you can summarize what the whole editorial is about.

·         Clearly state your argument. The rest of your editorial will be based on supporting this opinion. Make it as striking as possible. However, in doing so, never use "I"--it diminishes the strength and credibility of the paper and sounds rather informal.

Lead with an objective explanation of the issue. The body of your work should explain the issue objectively, as a reporter would, and tell why this situation is important to the reader or community as a whole.^[1]

·         Include who, what, when, where, why, and how. Cover all your bases and pull in facts or quotations from relevant sources. This ensures that every reader has at least a base knowledge (and an non-skewed one) of the topic at hand.

Present the opposing argument first. Make sure to identify the groups who oppose you or else the movers of the debate will become foggy. State their opinions objectively, using accurate facts or quotations. Never use slander.

·         It is fine to state positive things about the opposing side, if they are factual. It shows that you are taking the moral high road and giving a balanced overview. If you neglect to air the good side of your opposition, your editorial will come off biased and uninformed.

·         Give the opposition an actual argument, and a strong one at that. You gain nothing from refuting a non-issue. Make it clear their beliefs and what they're advocating.

Present your reasons/evidence that directly refute the opposition. Begin this section with a transition, clearly flowing from their argument to yours. Utilize facts and quotations from others who support your opinion.

·         Start with strong reasons that only get stronger. Don't feel limited to existing opinions--add your own, too. Whatever your reasons are, make sure to clearly come down on one side of the argument; there is no room for gray area here.

·         Literary allusions are appropriate. It can lend to your credibility and learnedness.^[1]Call to mind images of persons or times in the past that present an imagery to your reader.

Make your solution known. This is different than reasons and evidence. If you believe cutting the defense budget is wrong, what would you rather cut instead? Putting your solution out there is imperative to addressing the problem. If you don't have one, any solution is better than yours.

·         Your solution needs to be clear, rational, and doable. It cannot only work in a vacuum. What's more, it should be compelling. Ideally, your readers will be drawn to action with the information and answers you've presented.

Conclude your editorial with a punch. A note-worthy statement would forever engrave the editorial into the reader's mind. Use quotes or a question that would make the readers think hard. (e.g. If we will not take care of the environment, then who will?)

·         End with a hard-hitting summary; you may have a few readers who scanned your piece absent-mindedly. All in all, your audience should leave feeling more informed and moved to do something further about the issue.

Proofread your work. A great piece is not great if it's riddled with spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Have someone on your team look over your work; two minds are always better than one.

·         If you're working as part of an organization, make sure you haven't misrepresented their viewpoints. Allow your group to go over the piece to make sure everyone (at the very least, the majority) is behind the arguments you're about to make public. They can, simultaneously, present questions or ideas that you may have missed or glossed over.

How to write an interview article

How to write an interview article

 You have learned how to think up interesting interview questions and follow-up questions. The next step is turning the Q&A from your interview into an article. Think of the quotes from your interview as the chocolate chips in a cookie. You’re going to spread them throughout your article to make it more tasty and interesting. But you need to mix in other ingredients, too – information, facts and your own writing – to get a complete article. A full article which includes quotes embedded in it is more interesting to read than a list of questions and answers. Spice up your article with quotes from your interview that answer questions or offer insight and opinions. Your readers want to hear what the interviewee had to say, but context and background in your own words help complete the picture.

1. After your interview, write out or print out your questions and answers.

2. Look through your notes and decide what the focus, or angle, of your article will be. You might already have some idea of what angle you want to write about before you start (because you did your research and learned about your subject before you interviewed them, right?), or maybe an angle will emerge as you read over the interview When you are conducting your interview you should have a vague idea of what you want to write, but be willing to change it if things seem to be going in a better or different direction. If you’re having trouble finding an angle in your notes, step away from it for a while.

3. In your notes, highlight the things that are worth including in your article. Not everything the person said has to go into your finished article. Some of the things you’ll want to include from your interview are information. That doesn’t need to be in a quote, though, because her exact words about it don’t really tell us anything special about her. It’s okay to discard information or quotes that weren’t interesting or that don’t add any important details to your article.

Sometimes it’s helpful to highlight things that are information in one color and things that are worth quoting in a different color.

4. Now order the information you’ve highlighted from most important to least important. (Remember the Inverted Pyramid for organizing news stories, where the most important information goes first. For a feature article, you might change the order to help tell your story, but the Pyramid is a good place to start.)

5. Your article needs a beginning, a middle, and an end. Think about how you are going to introduce the article. What information do you need to include at the beginning to set the scene or introduce your subject? Find a hook for the article – an interesting quote or detail that will make your readers want to read on. Use it in the first paragraph.

6. Next, write your first draft incorporating the information and quotes you’ve highlighted. Don't just report what was said. Tell a story. You can move quotes around to a different order than they happened in the interview to make the article flow better, as long as you don’t change the words the person said. Include background information to help tell your story. For example, if you interviewed an author about her new book, you might include what other books she has written or awards she has won for writing. Using Quotes: • Make sure when you quote people that you don’t add or remove anything that would change the meaning of what they said. • It is okay to leave out filler words like “um” and “like” in your quotes, unless those words show something important about the interviewee. Vocabulary: • Interviewer: The person who asks the questions (that’s you!) • Interviewee: The person who answers the questions (sometimes also called the subject) • Hook: An interesting detail, quote or piece of information that captures (“hooks”) the reader and makes him want to keep reading • Angle: The focus of your article; the aspect of the story you choose to highlight and develop.